Presence of Traditional Rhetoric in Modern Rhetoric
“Rhetoric is the art of ruling the minds of men”-Plato (“Rhetoric Quotes”). Rhetoric has been a part of man’s life for centuries, and as a result has changed with time. It is true that modern rhetoric and traditional rhetoric differ greatly. However, traditional rhetoric is the foundation of modern rhetoric, and therefore still present. The basic devices and techniques of traditional rhetoric are still used by many modern rhetoricians, such as John F. Kennedy in his Inaugural Address. Using affective delivery and pacing, Kennedy demonstrates how modern rhetoric is still largely influenced by traditional rhetoric and has the same effectiveness in persuading and bring together a crowd. Kennedy follows Aristotle’s rhetoric devises of ethos, pathos, and logos by using the rhetorical techniques of anaphora, antimetabole, parallelism and metaphor in an attempt to unify the American public.
In the beginning of the twentieth century rhetoric was in a decline (Bizzell & Herzberg 1181). This decline was due greatly to a change in people’s way of interpreting and thinking. Factual scientific proofs became more important than inventive arguments, which led to a rejection of the study of invention; a key component of traditional rhetoric. It was at the turn of the twentieth century that rhetoric began to emerge again (Bizzel & Herzberg 1183). For the United States it returned in the form of public speaking (Bizzell & Herzberg 1183). Public speaking classes began to emerge, returning to the traditional categories of invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery (Bizzell & Herzberg 1184). The rhetorical teachings of public speaking became useful for those pursuing political positions, such as John F. Kennedy, who in his Inaugural Address exemplifies modern rhetoric and its similarities to traditional rhetoric. This can be seen from his use of delivery. Kennedy attempts to rally the American people, reminding them of their oneness, their duty to society, and the fact that they represent a new generation. In his delivery, Kennedy uses pacing as a way to allow the audience to consider what he has said on their own terms. This is evident from when he says, “to our sister republics south of the border, we offer a special pledge-to convert our good words into good deeds-in a new alliance for progress-to assist free men and free governments in casting off the chains of poverty” (Kennedy). Between each dash Kennedy pauses, a pacing technique that makes his delivery more effective as it allows the audience to consider each individual thought. In his delivery, Kennedy establishes his creditability through ethos, his emotional appeals through pathos and his reasoning through logos. He uses Aristotle’s rhetorical devices in his delivery in a modern fashion that appeals to his public.
The first thing Kennedy does in his speech is establish his creditability, or ethos. Ethos is the character or reputation of a rhetorician, an essential device to gaining the trust of an audience (Crowley & Hawhee 195). Similar to traditional rhetoric, modern rhetoric can establish ethos by referring to a specific person, or the work of a specific person. Kennedy shows his creditability by opening with the line, “Vice President Johnson, Mr. Speaker, Mr. Chief Justice, President Eisenhower, Vice President Nixon, President Truman, reverend clergy, fellow citizens, we observe today not a victory of party, but a celebration of freedom” (Kennedy). Kennedy also specifically mentions “fellow citizens,” a modern rhetorical technique that shows that he is humble and relatable. He further shows his creditability by addressing all those in the world, both from the past and the present. This is done through the use of the rhetorical devise anaphora, which is when repetition occurs at the beginning of each subsequent thought, phrase, clause or sentence (Crowley & Hawhee 428). Kennedy’s use of an anaphora can be seen from when he begins six paragraphs with, “to those old allies,” “to those new states,” “to those people,” “to our sister republics,” “to that world,” and “finally, to those nations” (Kennedy). By using an anaphora, Kennedy is able to fairly address all sides of the situation, which institutes his creditability as a fair and honest person. Establishing his ethos is important for gaining the trust of his audience, but is also useful for showing that he is knowledgeable.
Another essential part of ethos for a rhetorician is demonstrating ones character (Crowley & Hawee 202). Aristotle said that if we believe that a speaker has “good sense, good moral character, and goodwill,” we are inclined more to believe what the speaker says to us (Edlund). Kennedy was aware of this and demonstrated his good character by showing that he was informed of the United States situation with the Soviet Union and the world. This is apparent from when he says, “The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all form of human life. And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still as issue around the globe” (Kennedy). Here he acknowledges that there are currently problems in the world, but that man, America has the power to resolve them.
Along with showing that he is knowledgeable, Kennedy also establishes his good character by referring to the bible. A traditional rhetoric technique for establishing good character is to refer to the work of someone famous. Kennedy uses a reference to the modern religion of Christianity as a way to speak to multiple people. He uses the line, “and to remember that, in the past, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside” (Kennedy). He also refers to God multiple times throughout his speech, such as when he said, “The belief that the right of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hands of God” (Kennedy). Kennedy uses religion as a way to relate to the American public and remind them that they have many of the same hopes and beliefs. His references to God also secure his goodwill, the third essential part of ethos.
The famous rhetorician Cicero said that goodwill can be won if we refer to our own acts and services without arrogance and by acting humbly (Edlund). Kennedy shows his modesty when he says, “All this cannot be finished in the first 100 days. Nor will it be finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin” (Kennedy). He shows that he is no different from any individual American citizen, and can only try his best to achieve his goal. This modestly makes him more relatable to the American public and secures his good will as a president. Through establishing his creditability, demonstrating his good character, and securing his good will, Kennedy inhabits the function of the traditional device ethos, with the use of modern references and gestures.
After creating his ethos, Kennedy continues his use of Aristotle’s rhetorical devices by generating pathos, the appeal to human emotions and passions. Modern rhetoric states that we make decisions on rational thought, but in his work Aristotle pointed out the influential powers of emotions such as anger, pity, fear, envy, joy and so on (Crowley & Hawhee 247). I agree with Aristotle that emotions are our way of “knowing,” influencing our rational thought, and that it is important to know the emotional states of the audience in order to persuade them. Kennedy was aware of the effective use of pathos and used the fear and anger American citizens felt towards the Soviet Union to unify them. He played on the words “we,” “us,” and “our” in an encouraging attitude towards his audience’s patriotism. This can be seen from when he says, “the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans-born in this century, tempted by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage-and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this Nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world” (Kennedy). Here Kennedy creates a common enemy by playing on his audience’s emotions, and then unifies them together by stating that it is “our” duty to work together.
Kennedy further appeals to the emotions of his audience through the modern rhetorical techniques of parallelism and antimetabole. Parallelism is a figure wherein similar grammatical constructions house different words (Crowley & Hawhee 434). Parallelism is used in the sentence, “if a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich” (Kennedy). Kennedy uses parallelism to make his audience acknowledge that money is not the most important thing, but that people are. This is an emotional appeal to the shame people feel from behaving greedily. Kenney also appeals to the emotion of hope by using an antimetabole, which is a figure that expresses contrasting ideas in juxtaposed structures (Crowley & Hawhee 428). This can be seen from when he says, “let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate” (Kennedy). He uses the word fear to encourage his audience to take action boldly and bravely. By affectively appealing to his audiences emotions Kennedy is able to more easily persuade them.
After achieving his creditability and appealing to his audience’s emotions, Kennedy shows his reasoning, or logos. In modern society, logic and rationality are highly valued over the appeals to the speaker or the emotions of the audience (Edlund). Kennedy follows a more traditional method of logos, using dialectic reasoning over scientific. He uses a call to action to persuade the American public that it is their duty to help their own less fortunate citizens and to help those who are less fortunate around the world. He does this through the use of an antimetabole, which can be seen from when he says, “and so my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country” (Kennedy). He also uses the literary device of metaphor, which is a trope wherein one word is substituted for another to add emphasis (Crowley & Hawhee 433). Kennedy uses a metaphor in the sentence, “the energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it-and the glow from that fire can truly light the world” (Kennedy). Kennedy refers to America’s passion as fire and light in an attempt to rally the American public to take action.
Although Kennedy does not exemplify modern logos, I believe that his use of logos is still effective. Sometimes all the scientific facts in the world cannot convince someone to do something or believe something. Scientific proofs have been deemed the most reasonable and logical, but people still have to believe it is true. Kennedy uses Aristotle’s method of dialectic reasoning by referring to the acts of God and reminding his audience of their duty to society. This can be seen from when he says, “with a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead this land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God’s work must truly be our own” (Kennedy). This biblical reference is a deductive reasoning technique that Kennedy uses effectively to persuade his audience to consider their duty to society and acknowledge the influence they have on the world.
While it is true that rhetoric has changed overtime, modern rhetoric still uses many of the same devices and techniques as traditional rhetoric. This is evident from President John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address where he uses Aristotle’s rhetorical devices of ethos, pathos and logos through the rhetorical techniques of anaphora, antimetabole, parallelism and metaphor. Modern rhetoric relies heavily on scientific proofs and rational thought, but Kennedy’s speech demonstrates how effective establishment of creditability, appeal to emotions and reference to shared beliefs can persuade an audience to take action. Overall Kennedys Inaugural Address shows the similarities between traditional and modern rhetoric, and how traditional rhetorical devises can still be effective through the use of modern appeals, beliefs, and references.
